Weimar Society and Culture Essay Example

Weimar Society and Culture Paper The great years for Weimar Germany were from 1924 to 1929, when the Republic got past the emergencies of 1923 and entered a phase of steadiness. The economy as of now was prosperous and the political disarray went to steadiness. The splendid culture of Germany made it the focal point of European innovativeness. This was in the zones of music, film, workmanship, writing, science and more where Berlin demonstrated extraordinary abilities! Berlin was presently observed as one of the most energizing urban areas in Europe, and Germany was acknowledged back as an equivalent in to the network. Theater and the men's club particularly thrived in Weimar society and culture with the idea of Proletarian Theater created by Erwin Piscator coming in to play. This auditorium created plays just as trying perspectives on the citizenry which hadn’t been seen much before this time. A man named Bertolt Brecht alongside arranger Kurt Weill; they made The Threepenny Opera, a creation that turned out to be exceptionally fruitful when it originally showed up in 1928. Brecht was a socialist and his work normally communicated his absence of exemption with the business mid-class culture. Most venue bits of Germany were diverse to the past in light of the fact that a lot of it had a political and social message. At the point when it went to the film, Berlin had a dynamic film industry. In the 1920’s, more movies were delivered then in the remainder of Europe consolidated. Many stunning German chiefs were found who included Fritz Lang, Joseph von Sternberg and Ernst Lubitsch. A portion of the film perfect works of art these men made include: The Cabinet of Dr Caligari, The Blue Angel, Metropolis and Nosferatu. We will compose a custom article test on Weimar Society and Culture explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom exposition test on Weimar Society and Culture explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom exposition test on Weimar Society and Culture explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Blue Angel propelled its star Marlene Dietrich who got world well known. Nosferatu was a German thriller as was The Cabinet of Dr Caligari. The Cabinet of Dr Caligari was coordinated in 1919 by Robert Wiene; and is the narrative of homicide and double dealing set in a little German town of Hols enwall. Both of these blood and gore films were re-made again later on. Extraordinary film organizations made German film one of the most remarkable on the planet (a position it never again accomplished). Driving arrangers of atonal music educated and heard their works originally acted in Weimar Germany. The next decade in Germany was brimming with superb scholars and incredible writing. A portion of these scholars incorporate Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann and Erich Maria Remarque who was well known for his novel ‘All Quiet on the Western Front. ’ A. q. o. t. w. f. was distributed in 1928 and was the most celebrated of all his work. The epic is about the cold-bloodedness of war from a soldier’s viewpoint. Thomas Mann was granted the Nobel Prize in Literature, 1929, most likely as a result of his fruitful books Buddenbrooks and enchantment mountain. The acclaimed school of engineering ‘Bauhaus’ ran over the new plans for German structure. Walter Gropius was the originator of the school in 1919, accepted that craftsmanship should work with innovation and roll out an improvement to the structures they were to make. The school mirrored the issues going on in Germany and dismissed the more established progressively customary styles that were found in the desperate occasions of the nation. Berlin, specifically, turned into a flourishing midpoint of numerous new workmanship developments, for example, Dadaism and expressionism. Craftsmen utilized strategies that were new and unordinary to create important works that communicated the world and reality. Specialists got a kick out of the chance to communicate there sentiments and feelings; more often than not mirroring the anguish and hardships numerous German’s needed to experience in the public arena. The significant specialists of this period incorporate George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Ernst (just as some more). Max Ernst was especially renowned as a result of his bizarre conduct and unconventional techniques. The Weimar specialists were first impacted by Russia and the USA. The sequential construction system procedure that was created in the American vehicle industry, the high rise, and styles of the American’s mass utilization appeared to be the center of present day Weimar craftsmen. They adjusted some American structures however regularly utilized them basically and innovatively. Germany had the most taught populace in Europe so it made mechanical and logical advances during the 1920’s. Seven Nobel prizes were won by German researchers consistently; and had the most well known researchers of all; Albert Einstein who worked in Germany until 1933. Einstein was a hypothetical physicist who was most popular for his hypothesis of relativity which is E=mc2. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. A man named Karl Mannheim created speculations supported by a combination of communism and Freudian treatment that have demonstrated profoundly persuasive in the twentieth-century. Notwithstanding that, the Weimar Republic acquired astounding colleges and science focuses. Gottingen was the universes most renowned place for material science, and German was the global language in material science and science. The innovation of Weimar Germany additionally blasted. The world’s first incredible traveler carrier was made and named the Graf Zeppelin. This humongous plane was made by an organization called Luftschiffbau Zeppelin and was loaded up with oxygen to make its intersections to the USA and South America. One day it even flew around the entire world! Another German carrier made was named the Hindenburg and just to obliterate itself while endeavoring arriving in 1937. Likewise correspondences advances, for example, the radio were created. The New streets and railroads were being made, so now the engine business including the Mercedes and the BMW thrived. Like any disaster, the Great Inflation likewise had significant social impacts; which hit numerous individuals of the working class. For instance, little youngsters were allowed by their folks to recruit themselves out as whores inasmuch as they were paid with margarine, one of the most valuable products of expansion ridden Germany. Government authorities once who were degenerate; enthusiastically took kickbacks as food or outside cash in return for licenses and apportion cards. One may even observe government authorities and men of the universe of high account pursuing plastered mariners without disgrace. In Berlin, several men dressed as ladies, and many ladies as men under according to the police! Not saying all Germans responded to the expansion along these lines, even the working class. One of the more genuine responses to the dubious economy was the developing doubt among the working class that the Jews were by one way or another mindful.

Lifeboat free essay sample

As the music filled my ears with Joy I could feel just the joy I was In. Maybe nothing else on the planet made a difference. The world could end and I wouldnt care. I could feel the magnificence of the sound of Christian music In my heart It Inspired me so that nobody else could see ever the manner in which I feel. I was lovely, the world was excellent, likely as wonderful as the manner in which I feel. At that point the world got very, I got very. This was the first occasion when I can say I genuinely heard music. My name is Sally, similar to a debris tree knoll. I was the young lady who was strolling the rang path.I was isolated from my family when I was five and came here to the United States. My mother had gotten hitched, while I treaded carefully father beat her and whore her, years cruises by. We will compose a custom article test on Raft or then again any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page John his child, a tall, beast like who took my pride and that young lady I was. Living in an asylum for quite a long time, I was discouraged, lost, befuddled and took the hands of an inappropriate people to support me. Where it counts I had confidence when I heard the expression of God through music. The primary second I put on my earphones and squeezed play on my Pod. The melody playing was One thing remains y Kristin Standstill each word became Imprinted Into my memory.I realized what was absent from my empty life. It had an inclination that It was an entirely different world and I at long last opened my eyes and Just ventured Into this world that as great and everything else around me lost its significance while I became mixed up in its daze. It was an inclination that just took everything that wasn't right, failed, befuddling, and agonizing within me and changed it into something that I knew just because was correct. The torment was still there however I discovered a way change keep these frightful inquiries that brought me so much torment each time I heard Are you K? ND Do you need talk? I realized that there was something incorrectly yet to every other person I Just appeared another peaceful child who Just didnt have companions and possibly I was, I sincerely dont even know. I felt as long as I had music to keep myself from the fall to pieces button, that I would discover some type of bliss regardless of how little It was. Music to me wasnt Just a type of help, It was a path for me to communicate something anything possibly not to others however to myself with the goal that I realized I had some kind of feeling and that I was even normal.It is my life pontoon. I adhered to Christian music as though it was the key for m e to make it in this world and it worked. It kept me dry till one day a tropical storm came and nearly suffocated me and in this vicious tempest and I lost my direction. I quit following the music and I surmise some place along the line I took the my ways back and fell into this loathsome hellhole and went excessively far down. One day I woke up and asked myself who am l? I realized that I needed to have trust and follow the expression of God and persuade me and transform me and guide me.Here in this world I understood that Christian music would have been ready to be my life rearward I glanced around and found that this reflects was my inspiration, my quality, and would advise me not to surrender. I was thankful that I did, I flipped over my raft and Just kept on walking around. As the days, weeks, months, and years went on that I talked and increased new companions, I found that my life was turning out to be less and less required as individuals were at long last beginning to acknowledge me for me. The haziness and torment yet now I realize that I have something beyond my music and raft since when another tempest comes, I have other people who can e nable me to endure.

Companies can’t refuse - 1100 Words

Companies can't refuse (Essay Sample) Content: Companies canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬t refuse to hire candidates who smokeIntroductionThe topic of smoking in the place of work has attracted a great deal of hubbub from different quarters consisting of the protagonists and antagonists of hiring candidates who smoke. Specifically, the main concerns against smoking are its health risks to the work environment, products and other employees. The cost benefit analysis of employees who smoke against employees who do not smoke suggests that smokers are liabilities in terms of economic, environmental, and social costs of companies. Despite these effects, it is almost impossible for companies to refuse to hire candidates who smoke since this would amount to discrimination. Thus, this analytical paper attempts to support the statement that companies cannot refuse to hire candidates who smoke.Companies cannot refuse to hire candidates who smokeIt is paradoxical for companies to refuse to hire candidates who smoke yet they have avenues for c aring for the sick employees. Across any organization, employees often have treatment packages for behavioral illnesses or diseases which affect them out of their own lifestyle, such as diabetes, infections, and heart failure among others. Thus, it will be incongruous and callous for companies to refuse to hire candidates who smoke yet they engage and later offer medical packages to other employees who have illnesses as a result of their lifestyle (Dubner, par. 2). Same as the way companies offer jobs to candidates with behavioral illnesses such as sexually transmitted ailments, it would be discriminating to refuse to hire a candidate who smokes since both diseases are as a result of personal choice. As a matter of fact, "they should not discriminate against qualified job candidates on the basis of health-related behavior" (Zimmerman, par. 4).The primary reason for companies to refuse to hire candidates is the fallacious argument that smokers in the work environment are conscientiou s to the recent rising cost of health care to the employees. Through critical and creative reflection, it is in order to dismiss this argument as very simplistic. The argument is silent on the addictive nature of smoking and treats it as an absolute voluntary activity. However, "among adult daily smokers, 88% began smoking by the time they were 18, before society would consider them fully responsible for their actions" (Zimmerman, par. 5).Almost 50% of the daily smokers are addicted to smoking despite being competent in their areas of specialization. Although "as many as 69% of smokers want to quit, the addictive properties of tobacco make that exceedingly difficult: only 3 to 5% of unaided cessation attempts succeed" (Zimmerman, par. 5). Thus, locking this group from employment would translate into direct victimization and discrimination of persons on the basis of their past mistakes. Refusing to hire candidates who smoke is same as treating smokers as people who have full control of their behavioral addiction.Isolating smoking as the only reason for the rising cost of health care in companies is unrealistic. Several ailments take a higher percentage of health care cost than the effects of smoking. For instance, candidates who suffer cancer and advance diabetes are more likely to strain the cost of health care besides being constant absentees than candidates who are smokers. The increase in the cost of health care is also as a result of increased premiums when employees have children and working in unsafe environment. In the real sense, "many of these costs result from seemingly innocent, everyday lifestyle choices such as those regarding diet and exercise" (Zimmerman, par. 7). It is unfair to blame candidates who smoke or the act of smoking as the only contributing factor to the high cost of health care in companies.The primary focus of problematic behavior is on three systems of psychosocial influence such as the personality system, the perceived environmen t system, and the behavior system. The variables in the personality system are at the socio-cognitive level, reflex social meanings, and developmental experience. These can be values, expectations, beliefs, attitudes, and orientations toward a person and others. The variables in the perceived environment system refer to environmental characteristics su...

The Sociology of Gender

The sociology of gender is one of the largest subfields within sociology  and features theory and research that critically interrogates the social construction of gender, how gender interacts with other social forces in society, and how gender relates to social structure overall. Sociologists within this subfield study a wide range of topics with a variety of research methods, including things like identity, social interaction, power and oppression, and the interaction of gender with other things like race, class, culture, religion, and sexuality, among others. The Difference Between Sex and Gender To understand the sociology of gender one must first understand how sociologists define gender and sex. Though male/female and man/woman are often conflated in the English language, they actually refer to two very different things: sex and gender. The former, sex, is understood by sociologists to be a biological categorization based on reproductive organs. Most people fall into the categories of male and female, however, some people are born with sex organs that do not clearly fit either category, and they are known as intersex. Either way, sex is a biological classification based on body parts. Gender, on the other hand, is a  social  classification based on ones identity, presentation of self, behavior, and interaction with others. Sociologists view gender as learned behavior and a culturally produced identity, and as such, it is a social category. The Social Construction of Gender That gender is a social construct becomes especially apparent when one compares how men and women behave across different cultures, and how in some cultures and societies, other genders exist too. In Western industrialized nations like the U.S., people tend to think of masculinity and femininity in dichotomous terms, viewing men and women as distinctly different and opposites. Other cultures, however, challenge this assumption and have less distinct views of masculinity and femininity. For example, historically there was a category of people in the Navajo culture called berdaches, who were anatomically normal men but who were defined as a third gender considered to fall between male and female. Berdaches married other ordinary men (not Berdaches), although neither was considered homosexual, as they would be in today’s Western culture. What this suggests is that we learn gender through the process of socialization. For many people, this process begins before they are even born, with parents selecting gendered names on the basis of the sex of a fetus, and by decorating the incoming babys room and selecting its toys and clothes in color-coded and gendered ways that reflect cultural expectations and stereotypes. Then, from infancy on, we are socialized by family, educators, religious leaders, peer groups, and the wider community, who teach us what is expected from us in terms of appearance and behavior based on whether they code us as a boy or a girl. Media and popular culture play important roles in teaching us gender too. One result of gender socialization is the formation of gender identity, which is one’s definition of oneself as a man or woman. Gender identity shapes how we think about others and ourselves and also influences our behaviors. For example, gender differences exist in the likelihood of drug and alcohol abuse, violent behavior, depression, and aggressive driving. Gender identity also has an especially strong effect on how we dress and present ourselves, and what we want our bodies to look like, as measured by normative standards. Major Sociological Theories of Gender Each major sociological framework has its own views and theories regarding gender and how it relates to other aspects of society. During the mid-twentieth century, functionalist theorists argued that men filled instrumental roles in society while women filled  expressive roles, which worked to the benefit of society. They viewed a gendered division of labor as important and necessary for the smooth functioning of a modern society. Further, this perspective suggests that our socialization into prescribed roles drives gender inequality by encouraging men and women to make different choices about family and work. For example, these theorists see wage inequalities as the result of choices women make, assuming they choose family roles that compete with their work roles, which renders them less valuable employees from the managerial standpoint. However, most sociologists now view this functionalist approach as outdated and sexist, and there is now plenty of scientific evidence to suggest that the wage gap is influenced by deeply ingrained gender biases rather than by choices men and women make about family-work balance. A popular and contemporary approach within the sociology of gender is influenced by symbolic interactionist  theory, which focuses on the micro-level everyday interactions that produce and challenge gender as we know it. Sociologists West and Zimmerman popularized this approach with their 1987 article on doing gender, which illustrated how gender is something that is produced through interaction between people, and as such is an interactional accomplishment. This approach highlights the instability and fluidity of gender and recognizes that since it is produced by people through interaction, it is fundamentally changeable. Within the sociology of gender, those inspired by conflict theory focus on how gender and assumptions and biases about gender differences lead to the empowerment of men, oppression of women, and the structural inequality of women relative to men. These sociologists see gendered power dynamics as built into the social structure, and thus manifested throughout all aspects of a patriarchal society. For example, from this viewpoint, wage inequalities that exist between men and women result from men’s historic power to devalue women’s work and benefit as a group from the services that women’s labor provides. Feminist theorists,  building on aspects of the three areas of theory described above, focus on the structural forces, values, world views, norms, and everyday behaviors that create inequality and injustice on the basis of gender. Importantly, they also focus on how these social forces can be changed to create a just and equal society in which no one is penalized for their gender. Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Napoleon Crossing the Alps at Saint Bernard Pass, 1800

11/8/13 Napoleon Crossing the Alps at Saint Bernard Pass, 1800 The painting of Napoleon Crossing the Alps at Saint Bernard Pass is truly a magnificent and unique work of art for its time. It is an oil painting on canvas which was painted by JacquesLouis David. The work was first started in October of 1800 and completed just four months later in January of 18011. However, there were a total of five different versions of the painting created, with the last version being completed in 1805. All five versions are located at several different locations throughout Europe. The work was painted at the Chà ¢teau de Malmaison, which at the time was a government building just outside of Paris, France. The painting is approximately 8’6† in height and†¦show more content†¦After all, Napoleon was so pleased with it that he requested several other versions to be made. The painting does a great job of representing France’s new found power after the French Revolution and establishes a sense of authority and honor for the French people. I find the extensive detail and quality of the painting simply impressive. It is definitely a painting I would recommend other people see and read about. 3 Works Cited Page 1) http://www.debate.org/reference/napoleon-crossing-the-alps 2) http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/davids-napoleon-crossing-the-alps.html 3) http://www.napoleon.org/en/essential_napoleon/key_painting/files/482581.aspShow MoreRelated Jacques Louis David Essay2128 Words   |  9 Pagesfor a time at the end of the Reign of Terror. David emerged to become First Painter to the emperor and foremost recorder of Napoleonic events (e.g., Napoleon Crossing the Saint Bernard Pass, 1800; Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 1805–07; and The Distribution of the Eagles, 1810) and a sensitive portraitist (Mme Reacute;camier, 1800; Louvre). In this period David reached the height of his influence, but his painting, more than ever the embodiment of neoclassical theory, was again staticRead MoreThe Napoleon Complex2927 Words   |  12 Pagesmention Napoleon is the idea of a short, angry, and bossy little man who is aggressive to compensate for being little, in other words having a Napoleon Complex. Ironically the idea that Napoleon was a short man is false as he was average height for his size at the time. A more useful way to look at a Napoleon complex would be to describe it as, a person who is driven by a perceived handicap to overcompensate in other aspects, in their lives. With this definition, we get what Napo leons mentalityRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesin depth the defining phenomena of that epoch, which, as the essays demonstrate, very often connect in important ways with these and other major developments. The opening essays of this collection underscore the importance of including the late 1800s in what is best conceived as a â€Å"long† twentieth century. The 4 †¢ INTRODUCTION contributions by Jose Moya and Adam McKeown and Howard Spodek consider in nuanced detail key developments in transport and communication technologies, demographicRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesmajority wants. She adds that the three of you might get lucky while you are hiking out and meet someone who can help, maybe a hiker who knows more about Giardia or has extra watersterilization tablets. Then again, you might not be so lucky; you didnt pass anybody on the way in. Hiking out while you all have a bad case of Giardia might even be life threatening. Emilio agrees to go along with the majority decision, too. He wants to stay, but not by himself. Still, he isnt convinced by Juanitas reasons

Influences of Juran Trilogy free essay sample

Trilogy Nissan Motor Corp. redefined mass production and built its reputation around quality and reliability by paying attention to large and small details and following the Juran Trilogy applying the planning, Control and Improvement. Nissan builds a number of test vehicles and performs repeated running tests and simulated running tests to elevate production precision before they deliver a vehicle to the customer. To accurately respond to the markets needs, collect as many faulty parts from the field as possible. After validating the condition of each part, they attempt to replicate the problem and determine its cause. Finally, they carry out an analysis using the most reliable methods possible. Once the cause is determined, they begin specific countermeasures. Nissan Corp. achieves quality assurance through a two-stage test that includes test drives and local evaluation. There are four main phases to creating and supplying a vehicle: planning, development, production and marketing/sales. We will write a custom essay sample on Influences of Juran Trilogy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The main element that influences the quality in Nissan Corp is â€Å"Control â€Å". Quality Control is a commitment in their business plan, and Nissan is putting in a lot of focus and effort to meet that commitment. Influences from the Juran Trilogy has been implemented in the company’s curriculum such as planning and improvement. In Nissan Corp. the quality curriculum plan is to increase quality-control training for its entire worker, so in this way we can say that they are complying with the Juran trilogy by working on planning then development a control phase. The Center’s mission is to provide quality and design-based training to improve the capabilities of employees so that they are empowered to work from a customer first perspective. Nissan employees will learn from a curriculum of safety, design and quality control training to reinforce work methods and develop new work standards through benchmarking and continuous improvement processes. Also Nissan has been committed to set a global standard for the quality of the components from its suppliers base. Also in this curriculum Nissan Corporation has made progress to help ensure that the customers can have complete confidence in the quality, safety and reliability of their vehicles, and their initiatives build on those accomplishments. Continuous efforts to strengthen vehicle quality and safety, and to respond swiftly and thoroughly to the customers’ concerns, are driven by a core values and will always be a fundamental part of the company. One of Nissan goals is to set new, even higher standards for quality and customer responsiveness in both the factory and the market by continuing to put customers first in everything they do. Another elements of the Juran Trilogy on Nissan Corp, is the quality planning, by identifying internal and external costumers, determine costumer needs and develop product features which respond to customer needs, establishing goals for product features and developing a process to meet the product goals. In this way we can say that Nissan can prove than the process can meet the process goals under operating conditions. Works Cited Greimel, H. (2013, 3 18). Nissan shake-up aims to shore up quality, EVs.

Outline of Chapter 2 Essay Example

Outline of Chapter 2 Essay chapter 2 chapter outline module 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior The Structure of the Neuron How Neurons Fire Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers module 6 module 7 The Brain The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating within the Body The Nervous System The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain The Central Core: Our â€Å"Old Brain† The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core The Cerebral Cortex: Our â€Å"New Brain† Neuroplasticity and the Brain The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? Exploring Diversity: Human Diversity and the Brain Try It! Assessing Brain Lateralization The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Learning to Control Your Heart—and Mind—through Biofeedback Psychology on the Web The Case of . . . The Fallen Athlete Full Circle: Neuroscience and Behavior 46 The Deepest Cut Wendy Nissley carried her two-year-old daughter, Lacy, into O. R. 12 at Johns Hopkins Hospital to have half of her brain removed. Lacy suffers from a rare malformation of the brain, known as hemimegalencephaly, in which one hemisphere grows larger than the other. The condition causes seizures, and Lacy was having so many—up to forty in a day—that at an age when other toddlers were trying out sentences, she could produce only a few language-like sounds. As long as Lacy’s malformed right hemisphere was attached to the rest of her brain, it would prevent her left hemisphere from functioning normally. We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Outline of Chapter 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer So Lacy’s parents had brought her to Johns Hopkins for a hemispherectomy, which is probably the most radical procedure in neurosurgery. (Kenneally, 2006, p. 36) neuroscience and behavior It took nearly a day, but the surgery to remove half of Lacy’s brain was a success. Within a few months, Lacy was crawling and beginning to speak. Although the long-term effects of the radical operation are still unclear, it brought substantial improvement to Lacy’s life. The ability of surgeons to identify and remove damaged portions of the brain is little short of miraculous. The greater miracle, though, is the brain itself. An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread, the brain controls our behavior through every waking and sleeping moment. Our movements, thoughts, hopes, aspirations, dreams—our very awareness that we are human—all depend on the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body, constituting the nervous system. Because of the importance of the nervous system in controlling behavior, and because humans at their most basic level are biological beings, many researchers in psychology and other fields as diverse as computer science, zoology, and medicine have made the biological underpinnings of behavior their specialty. These experts collectively are called neuroscientists (Beatty, 2000; Posner DiGirolamo, 2000; Gazzaniga, Ivry, Mangun, 2002; Cartwright, 2006). Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior are known as Behavioral neuroscientists Psychologists who specialize in behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists). They seek to answer sevconsidering the ways in which the eral key questions: How does the brain control the voluntary and involunbiological structures and functions tary functioning of the body? How does the brain communicate with other of the body affect behavior. parts of the body? What is the physical structure of the brain, and how does this structure affect behavior? Are psychological disorders caused by biological factors, and how can such disorders be treated? As you consider the biological processes that we’ll discuss in this chapter, it is important to keep in mind why behavioral neuroscience is an essential part of psychology: our understanding of human behavior requires knowledge of the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Biological factors are central to our sensory experiences, states of consciousness, motivation and emotion, development throughout the life span, and physical and psychological health. Furthermore, advances in behavioral neuroscience have led to the creation of drugs and other treatments for psychological and physical disorders. In short, we cannot understand behavior without understanding our biological makeup (Plomin, 2003a; Compagni Manderscheid, 2006; Plomin et al. , 2008). 47 looking ahe ad module 5 Neurons The Basic Elements of Behavior learning outcomes 5. 1 Explain the structure of a neuron. The nervous system is the pathway for the instructions that permit our bodies to carry out everyday activities such as scratching an itch as well as more remarkable skills like climbing to the top of Mount Everest. Here we will look at the structure and function of neurons, the cells that make up the nervous system, including the brain. 5. 2 Describe how neurons fire. 5. 3 Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another. 5. 4 Identify neurotransmitters. The Structure of the Neuron LO 1 Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depend, at one level, on exact muscle coordination. But if we consider how the muscles can be activated so precisely, we see that there are more fundamental processes involved. For the muscles to produce the complex movements that make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the right messages to them and coordinate those messages. Such messages—as well as those which enable us to think, remember, and experience emotion—are passed through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons Nerve cells, the basic Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic elements of the nervous system. Their elements of the nervous system. uantity is staggering—perhaps as many as 1 trillion neurons throughout Dendrites A cluster of fibers at the body are involved in the control of behavior (Boahen, 2005). one end of the neuron that receives messages from other neurons. Although there are several types of neurons, they all have a similar strucAxon The part of the neuron that ture, as illustrated in Figure 1. In contrast to most other cells, however, carries messages destined for other neurons have a distinctive feature: the ability to communicate with other neurons. cells and transmit information across relatively long distances. Many of the body’s neurons receive signals from the environment or relay the nervous system’s messages to muscles and other target cells, but the vast majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons in the elaborate information system that regulates behavior. As you can see in Figure 1, a neuron has a cell body with a cluster of fibers called dendrites at one end. Those fibers, which look like the twisted Remember that Dendrites branches of a tree, receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite Detect messages from other of the cell body is a long, slim, tubelike extension called an axon. The axon neurons; Axons carry signals carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is conAway from the cell body. siderably longer than the rest of the neuron. Although most axons are several s tudy aler t 48 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dendrites Terminal buttons Cell body M o ec vem tric ent of al i mpu lse el Myelin sheath Axon (inside myelin sheath) Figure 1 The primary components of the specialized cell called the neuron, the basic element of the nervous system (Van De Graaff, 2000). A neuron, like most types of cells in the body, has a cell body and a nucleus, but it also contains structures that carry messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neurons or body cells. In this neuron, as in most neurons, the axon is protected by the sausagelike myelin sheath. What advantages does the treelike structure of the neuron provide? millimeters in length, some are as long as three feet. A xons end in small bulges called terminal buttons, which send messages to other neurons. The messages that travel through a neuron are electrical in nature. Although there are exceptions, those electrical messages, or impulses, generally move across neurons in one direction only, as if they were traveling on a one-way street. Impulses follow a route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately along the tubelike extension, the axon, to adjacent neurons. To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another, axons must be insulated in some fashion (just as electrical wires must be insulated). Most axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon like links of sausage. Terminal buttons Small bulges at the end of the axons that send messages to other neurons. Myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Resting state The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts within a neuron. s tudy aler t Think of a neuron as a sausage, and the myelin sheath as the case around it. LO 2 How Neurons Fire Like a gun, neurons either fire—that is, transmit an electrical impulse along the axon—or don’t fire. There is no in-between stage, just as pulling harder on a gun trigger doesn’t make the bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none law: they are either on or off, with nothing in between the on state and the off state. Once there is enough force to pull the trigger, a neuron fires. Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in a resting state—it has a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts. When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell membrane open briefly to allow positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily from negative to positive. When the positive charge reaches a critical level, the â€Å"trigger† is pulled, and an electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels along the axon of the neuron (see Figure 2). psych 2. 0 www. mhhe. com/psychlife Neurons 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Figure 2 Movement of the action potential across the axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the neuron from negative to positive and triggering an action potential. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative. Time 1 Voltage Time 2 ++ +++ – – – – – – Time 3 Voltage Voltage Positive charge Negative charge Direction of impulse Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a â€Å"trigger,† changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive. Mirror neurons Neurons that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others’ behavior. The action potential moves from one end of the axon to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. Just after an action potential has occurred, a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how much stimulation it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded after each shot. Eventually, though, the neuron is ready to fire once again. Neurons differ not only in terms of how quickly an impulse moves along the axon but also in their potential rate of firing. Some neurons are capable of firing as many as a thousand times per second; others fire at much slower rates. The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neuron’s potential firing rate is reached. A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Thus, even though all impulses move at the same strength or speed through a particular axon—because of the all-or-none law—there is variation in the frequency of impulses, providing a mechanism by which we can distinguish the tickle of a feather from the weight of someone standing on our toes. Although all neurons operate through the firing of action potentials, there is significant specialization among different types of neurons. For example, in the last decade, neuroscientists have discovered the existence of mirror neurons, neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior (Lepage Theoret, 2007; Schulte-Ruther et al. , 2007). 50 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Specifically, mirror neurons may fire when we view others’ behavior, helping us to predict what their goals are and what hey may do next (Oberman, Pineda, Ramachandran, 2007; Triesch, Jasso, Deak, 2007). Mirror neurons may help explain how (and why) humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. LO 3 Where Neurons Connect to One Another: Bridging the Gap Synapse The space between two If you have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that each part is physically connected to another part. In con trast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for a structural connection between its components. Instead, a chemical connection bridges the gap, known as a synapse, between two neurons (see Figure 3). The synapse is the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron 1 Neurotransmitters are produced and stored in the axon. neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. 2 If an action potential arrives, the axon releases neurotransmitters. 3 Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse to receptor sites on another neuron’s dendrite. Axon Axon Synapse Dendrite Synapse Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Synapse Receptor site Receptor site 4 When a neurotransmitter fits into a receptor site, it delivers an excitatory or inhibitory message. If enough excitatory messages are delivered, the neuron will fire. A Neurotransmitter Dendrite B Figure 3 (A) A synapse is the junction between an axon and a dendrite. The gap between the axon and the dendrite is bridged by chemicals called neurotransmitters (Mader, 2000). (B) Just as the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000). Why is it advantageous for axons and dendrites to be linked by temporary chemical bridges rather than by the hard wiring typical of a radio connection or telephone hookup? Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 51 communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Fanselow Poulos, 2005; Dean Dresbach, 2006). carry messages across the synapse to When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal the dendrite (and sometimes the cell button, the terminal button releases a chemical courier called a neurotransbody) of a receiver neuron. mitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry messages across the Excitatory messages Chemical synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an The chemical mode of message transmission that occurs between neurons is action potential will travel down its axon. strikingly different from the means by which communication occurs inside Inhibitory messages Chemical neurons: although messages travel in electrical form within a neuron, they messages that prevent or decrease the move between neurons through a chemical transmission system. ikelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are Reuptake The reabsorption of capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neuneurotransmitters by a terminal button. rotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, e ach kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron (see Figure 3B). It is only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is possible. If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is basically one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages, in contrast, do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire. Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculator. Put simply, if the excitatory messages (â€Å"fire! †) outnumber psych 2. 0 the inhibitory ones (â€Å"don’t fire! †), the neuron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory www. mhhe. com/psychlife messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state (Mel, 2002; Flavell et al. , 2006). If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons—and effective communication across the synapse would no longer be possible. To solve this problem, neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or—more commonly— reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of chemical recycling called reuptake. Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. All this activity Messages Traveling between Neurons occurs at lightning speed (Helmuth, 2000; Holt Jahn, 2004). Neurotransmitters Chemicals that LO 4 Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified (Penney, 2000; Schmidt, 2006). Neurotransmitters vary significantly in terms of how strong their concentration must be to trigger a neuron to fire. Furthermore, the effects of a particular neurotransmitter vary, depending on the area of the nervous system in 52 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior Dopamine Pathways Name Acetylcholine (ACh) Location Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, especially some organs of the parasympathetic nervous system Brain, spinal cord Brain, spinal cord Effect Excitatory in brain and autonomic nervous system; inhibitory elsewhere Function Muscle movement, cognitive functioning Glutamate Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Excitatory Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Memory Eating, aggression, sleeping Serotonin Pathways Dopamine (DA) Brain Inhibitory or excitatory Muscle disorders, mental disorders, Parkinson’s disease Sleeping, eating, mood, pain, depression Pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetities, placebos Serotonin Brain, spinal cord Inhibitory Endorphins Brain, spinal cord Primarily inhibitory, except in hippocampus Figure 4 Some major neurotransmitters. which it is produced. The same neurotransmitter, then, can act as an excitatory message to a neuron located in one part of the brain and can inhibit firing in neurons located in another part. (The major neurotransmitters and their effects are described in Figure 4. ) One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh, its chemical symbol), which is found throughout the nervous system. ACh is Michael J. Fox, who suffers from Parkinson’s disease, like Muhammad Ali, has become a strong advocate for research into the disorder. The pair is seen here asking Congress for additional funds for Parkinson’s research. Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior 53 involved in our every move, because—among other things—it transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in memory capabilities, and diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease (Mohapel et al. , 2005). Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning. The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development of effective treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease, from which actor Michael J. Fox suffers, is caused by a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in From the perspective of . . . A Health Care Provider How might your understanding of the nervous system help you explain the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease to a patient with the disorder? Parkinson’s patients are proving effective (Kaasinen Rinne, 2002; Willis, 2005; Iversen Iversen, 2007). In other instances, over production of dopamine produces negative consequences. For example, researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are affected or perhaps even caused by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine. Drugs that block the reception of dopamine reduce the symptoms displayed by some people diagnosed with schizophrenia (Baumeister Francis, 2002; Bolonna Kerwin, 2005; Olijslagers, Werkman, McCreary, 2006). recap Explain the structure of a neuron.  ¦ A neuron has a cell body (which contains a nucleus) with a cluster of fibers called dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons. On the opposite end of the cell body is a tubelike extension, an axon, which ends in a small bulge called a terminal button. Terminal buttons send messages to other neurons. (p. 48) message to fire, it releases an action potential, an electrical charge that travels through the axon. Neurons operate according to an all-ornone law: Either they are at rest, or an action potential is moving through them. There is no in-between state. p. 49) Summarize how messages travel from one neuron to another.  ¦ Once a neuron fires, nerve impulses are carried to other neurons through the production of chemical substances, neurotransmitters, that actually bridge the gaps—known as synapses—between neurons. Neurotransmitters Describe how neurons fire.  ¦ Most axons are insulated by a coating called the myelin sheath. When a neuron receives a 54 Chapter 2 neuroscience and behavior may be either excitatory, telling other neurons to fire, or inhibitory, preventing or decreasing the likelihood of other neurons firing. (p. 52) Identify neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior. Common neurotransmitters include the following: acetylcholine, which transmits messages relating to our muscles and is involved in memory capabilities; glutamate, which plays a role in memory; gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which moderates behaviors from eating to aggression; dopamine, which is involved in movement, attention, and learning; serotonin, which is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating, mood, and pain; and endorphins, which seem to be involved in the brain’s effort to deal with pain and elevate mood. p. 53) evaluate 1. The is the fundamental element of the nervous system. and send messages through their 2. Neurons receive informatio n through their . 3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, axons are insulated by a coating called the . 4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called a 5. Endorphins are one kind of , the chemical â€Å"messengers† between neurons. . rethink How might psychologists use drugs that mimic the effects of neurotransmitters to treat psychological disorders? Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. neuron; 2. dendrites, axons; 3. yelin sheath; 4. synapse; 5. neurotransmitter key terms Behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) p. 47 Neurons p. 48 Dendrites p. 48 Axon p. 48 Terminal buttons p. 49 Myelin sheath p. 49 All-or-none law p. 49 Resting state p. 49 Module 5 neurons: the basic elements of behavior Action potential p. 50 Mirror neurons p. 50 Synapse p. 51 Neurotransmitters p. 52 Excitatory messages p. 52 Inhibitory messages p. 52 Reuptake p. 52 55 module 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System Communicating within the Body learning ou tcomes 6. 1 Explain how the structures f the nervous system are linked together. The complexity of the nervous system is astounding. Estimates of the number of connections between neurons within the brain fall in the neighborhood of 10 quadrillion—a 1 followed by 16 zeros. Furthermore, connections among neurons are not the only means of communication within the body; as we’ll see, the endocrine system, which secretes chemical messages that circulate through the blood, also communicates messages that influence behavior and many aspects of biological functioning (Kandel, Schwartz, Jessell, 2000; Forlenza Baum, 2004; Boahen, 2005). . 2 Describe the operation of the endocrine system and how it affects behavior. Central nervous system (CNS) The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord A bundle of neurons LO 1 The Nervous System that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means of transmitting messages b etween the brain and the body. The human nervous system has both logic and elegance. We turn now to a discussion of its basic structures. Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems As you can see from the schematic representation in Figure 1, the nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back (see Figure 2). As you can see in Figure 1, the spinal cord is the primary means for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. 56 Chapter 2 euroscience and behavior The Nervous System Consists of the brain and the neurons extending throughout the body Peripheral Nervous System Made up of long axons and dendrites, it contains all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Central Nervous System Consists of the brain and spinal cord Somatic Division (voluntary) Specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to a nd from the sense organs Autonomic Division (involuntary) Concerned with the parts of the body that function involuntarily without our awareness Brain An organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behavior Spinal Cord A bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back; transmits messages between the brain and the body Sympathetic Division Acts to prepare the body in stressful emergency situations, engaging resources to respond to a threat Parasympathetic Division Acts to calm the body after an emergency situation has engaged the sympathetic division; provides a means for the body to maintain storage of energy sources Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system. However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also Reflex An automatic, involuntary controls some simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the response to an incoming stimulus. brain. An example is the way the knee jerks forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of reflex, an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at work when psych 2. 0 you touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand. Although the www. mhhe. com/psychlife brain eventually analyzes and reacts to the situation (â€Å"Ouch—hot stove— pull away! ), the initial withdrawal is directed only by neurons in the spinal cord. Three kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect sensory and mot or neurons, carrying messages between the two. Organization of the Nervous System Module 6 the nervous system and the endocrine system 57 Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System Spinal nerves Figure 2 The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. Sensory (afferent) neurons Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system. Motor (efferent) neurons Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two. Peripheral nervous system The part As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major divisions— the somatic division and the autonomic division— both of which connect the central nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs. The somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements—such as the motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this page—and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. On the other hand, the autonomic division controls the parts of the body that keep us alive—the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs, and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are reading at this moment, the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your last meal. Activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are reading in bed you suddenly sense that someone is outside your bedroom window. As you look up, you see the glint of an object that might